Alterations in the cellular genes which directly or indirectly control cell growth and differentiation are considered to be the main cause of cancer. There are some thirty families of genes, called oncogenes, which are implicated in human tumor formation. Members of one such family, the ras gene family, are frequently found to be mutated in human tumors. In their normal state, proteins produced by the ras genes are thought to be involved in normal cell growth and maturation. Mutation of the ras gene, causing an amino acid alteration at one of three critical positions in the protein product, results in conversion to a form which is implicated in tumor formation. A gene having such a mutation is said to be "mutant" or "activated." Unmutated ras is called "wild-type" or "normal" ras. It is thought that such a point mutation leading to ras activation can be induced by carcinogens or other environmental factors. Over 90% of pancreatic adenocarcinomas, about 50% of adenomas and adenocarcinomas of the colon, about 50% of adenocarcinomas of the lung and carcinomas of the thyroid, and a large fraction of malignancies of the blood such as acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syndrome have been found to contain activated ras oncogenes. Overall, some 10 to 20% of human tumors have a mutation in one of the three ras genes (H-ras, Ki-ras, or N-ras).
It is presently believed that inhibiting expression of activated oncogenes in a particular tumor cell might force the cell back into more normal growth. For example, Feramisco et al., Nature 1985, 314, 639-642, demonstrated that if cells transformed to a malignant state with an activated ras gene are microinjected with antibody which binds to the protein product of the ras gene, the cells slow their rate of proliferation and adopt a more normal appearance. This has been interpreted as support for the involvement of the product of the activated ras gene in the uncontrolled growth typical of cancer cells.
There is a great desire to provide compositions of matter which can modulate the expression of ras, and particularly to provide compositions of matter which specifically modulate the expression of activated ras. It is greatly desired to provide methods of diagnosis and detection of nucleic acids encoding ras in animals. It is also desired to provide methods of diagnosis and treatment of conditions arising from ras activation. In addition, improved research kits and reagents for detection and study of nucleic acids encoding ras are desired.
Inhibition of oncogene expression has been accomplished using retroviral vectors or plasmid vectors which express a 2-kilobase segment of the Ki-ras protooncogene RNA in antisense orientation. Mukhopadhyay, T. et al. (1991) Cancer Research 51, 1744-1748; PCT Patent Application PCT/US92/01852 (WO 92/15680); Georges, R. N. et al. (1993) Cancer Research, 53, 1743-1746.
Antisense oligonucleotide inhibition of oncogenes has proven to be a useful tool in understanding the roles of various oncogene families. Antisense oligonucleotides are small oligonucleotides which are complementary to the "sense" or coding strand of a given gene, and as a result are also complementary to, and thus able to stably and specifically hybridize with, the mRNA transcript of the gene. Holt et al., Mol. Cell Biol. 1988, 8, 963-973, have shown that antisense oligonucleotides hybridizing specifically with mRNA transcripts of the oncogene c-myc, when added to cultured HL60 leukemic cells, inhibit proliferation and induce differentiation. Anfossi et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1989, 86, 3379-3383, have shown that antisense oligonucleotides specifically hybridizing with mRNA transcripts of the c-myb oncogene inhibit proliferation of human myeloid leukemia cell lines. Wickstrom et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 1988, 85, 1028-1032, have shown that expression of the protein product of the c-myc oncogene as well as proliferation of HL60 cultured leukemic cells are inhibited by antisense oligonucleotides hybridizing specifically with c-myc mRNA. U.S. Pat. No: 4,871,838 (Bos et al.) discloses oligonucleotides complementary to a mutation in codon 13 of N-ras to detect said mutation. U.S. Pat. No: 4,871,838 (Bos et al.) discloses molecules useful as probes for detecting a mutation in DNA which encodes a ras protein.
In all these cases, instability of unmodified oligonucleotides has been a major problem, as they are subject to degradation by cellular enzymes. PCT/US88/01024 (Zon et al.) discloses phosphorothioate oligonucleotides hybridizable to the translation initiation region of the amplified c-myc oncogene to inhibit HL-60 leukemia cell growth and DNA synthesis in these cells. Tidd et al., Anti-Cancer Drug Design 1988, 3, 117-127, evaluated methylphosphonate antisense oligonucleotides hybridizing specifically to the activated N-ras oncogene and found that while they were resistant to biochemical degradation and were nontoxic in cultured human HT29 cells, they did not inhibit N-ras gene expression and had no effect on these cells. Chang et al. showed that both methylphosphonate and phosphorothioate oligonucleotides hybridizing specifically to mRNA transcripts of the mouse Balb-ras gene could inhibit translation of the protein product of this gene in vitro. Chang et al., Anti-Cancer Drug Design 1989, 4, 221-232; Brown et al., Oncogene Research 1989, 4, 243-252. It was noted that TM was not well correlated with antisense activity of these oligonucleotides against in vitro translation of the ras p21 protein product. Because the antisense oligonucleotides used by Chang et al. hybridize specifically with the translation initiation region of the ras gene, they are not expected to show any selectivity for activated ras and the binding ability of these oligonucleotides to normal (wild-type) vs. mutated (activated) ras genes was not compared.
Helene and co-workers have demonstrated selective inhibition of activated (codon 12 G.fwdarw.T transition) H-ras mRNA expression using a 9-mer phosphodiester linked to an acridine intercalating agent and/or a hydrophobic tail. This compound displayed selective targeting of mutant ras message in both Rnase H and cell proliferation assays at low micromolar concentrations. Saison-Behmoaras, T. et al., EMBO J. 1991, 10, 1111-1118. Chang and co-workers disclose selective targeting of mutant H-ras message; this time the target was H-ras codon 61 containing an A.fwdarw.T transversion and the oligonucleotide employed was either an 11-mer methylphosphonate or its psoralen derivative. These compounds, which required concentrations of 7.5-150 .mu.M for activity, were shown by immunoprecipitation to selectively inhibit mutant H-ras p21 expression relative to normal p21. Chang et al., Biochemistry 1991, 30, 8283-8286.